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Type-II superconductor
In superconductivity, a type-II superconductor is characterized by the formation of magnetic vortices in an applied magnetic field. This occurs above a certain critical field strength ''Hc1''. The vortex density increases with increasing field strength. At a higher critical field ''Hc2'', superconductivity is destroyed. Type-II superconductors do not exhibit a complete Meissner effect.
==History==
In 1935, Rjabinin, Lev Shubnikov〔Rjabinin, J. N. and Schubnikow, L.W. (1935) "Magnetic properties and critical currents of superconducting alloys", ''Physikalische Zeitschrift der Sowjetunion'', vol .7, no.1, pp. 122–125.〕 experimentally discovered the Type-II superconductors. In 1950, the theory of the two types of superconductors was further developed by Lev Landau and Vitaly Ginzburg in their paper on Ginzburg-Landau theory.〔Ginzburg, V.L. and Landau, L.D. (1950) ''Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz.'' 20, 1064〕 In their argument, a type-I superconductor had positive free energy of the superconductor-normal metal boundary. At that time, all known superconductors were type-I, and initially type-II behavior was considered unphysical. The theory for the behavior of the Type-II superconducting state in magnetic field was greatly improved by Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov, who was elaborating on the ideas by Lars Onsager and Richard Feynman of quantum vortices in superfluids and Fritz London's idea of magnetic flux quantization in superconductors. The Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for the theory of Type-II superconductivity in 2003.〔A. A. Abrikosov, ("Type II superconductors and the vortex lattice" ), Nobel Lecture, December 8, 2003〕
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